In the year 629 CE in the Tang Dynasty (唐朝), Xuanzang (玄奘), a Buddhist monk, set out from the Tang capital Chang’an (长安, present day Xi’an [西安]) on a pilgrimage to India. This journey took him along routes that merchants used in trading with the Western Regions (西域) and what are now known as the Silk Road (丝绸之路). Xuanzang returned to Chang’an 17 years later. His epochal journey was later fictionalized by the Ming Dynasty (明朝) author Wu Cheng’en (吴承恩) in the Journey to the West (西游记, circa 1592, the Journey hereafter), which has remained widely-read to this day. However, the protagonist in the Journey was not Xuanzang, but the mythical Sun Wukong (孙悟空), who was Xuanzang’s disciple and body-guard in this pilgrimage. The Journey has made Wukong an iconic superhero in the history of Chinese pop culture to this day.

Even though it is unclear where and when it originated, Wukong’s mythical life did not start with the Journey and was likely from earlier folklores. Among the thousands of murals in the Mogao Caves (莫高窟) in Dunhuang (敦煌), a major crossroad town in the Silk Road, is the 13^th century painting (see feature image) showing Xuanzang on his journey to India. The depiction of Wukong accompanying Xuanzang on this pilgrimage was 300 years before the Journey. Moreover, Wukong has many similarities with the Hindu deity Hanuman, who first appeared in Indian mythology as early as 1500 BCE. Just like Wukong, Hanuman is a symbol of bravery, service, and devotion; has many special powers, including the ability to leap and fly without wings; and is often depicted with a golden crown, a long tail, and a red face. In Hindu mythology, Hanuman commands a monkey army just like Wukong did before joining Xuanzang on his pilgrimage.   

According to the Journey, the Monkey King’s life began atop the Mountain of Flowers and Fruits (花果山), where over centuries, the energy from the sun and the moon combined to impregnate a boulder to give birth to a stone money. He became the leader of the troop of moneys that lived in a mountain cave called “Water-Curtain Cave” (水帘洞) and was bestowed the name of “Handsome Monkey King” (美猴王).

Daring to attain immortality, the Monkey King left his mountain home to study under Master Subhuti (须菩提祖师). He anointed the Monkey King the dharma name Wukong (悟空), which means “realizing emptiness” in reference to Buddhist enlightenment. The surname Sun (孙) is an obvious hint to 猢狲, meaning a “macaque”. He acquired the secrets of immortality and mythical powers from the Master, but was finally expelled for showing off his powers.

The Jade Emperor (玉皇大帝), ruler of heaven, was finally alerted and alarmed by Wukong’s power. Obviously following the adage “keep your friends close, but keep your enemies closer”, the Jade Emperor invited Wukong to have a place in heaven as the “Protector of Horses” (‌弼马温) and later the “Guardian of the Immortal-Peach Grove” when Wukong self-proclaimed to be the “Great Sage Equal to Heavy” (齐天大圣). This charade did not last long. Wukong was discovered to have eaten all the ripe peaches that were supposed to be used for a banquet and he was outraged that he was not invited to the banquet. He crashed the banquet hall and ate all the food before the dinner even started. After wreaking havoc in heaven, Wukong was pinned under a mountain as punishment. He stayed there for 500 years until Xuanzang needed a disciple to help him on his pilgrimage to India. 

Wukong is endowed with extraordinary mythical powers. He can effortlessly somersault over 108,000 li (里), about 54,000 kilometers or 33,500 miles; immobilize his enemies in mid-combat, and summon storms and rain (呼风唤雨) at will, for example. For deception, he can transform himself into 72 different forms, including animals, objects, and even other people. Using his hair, he can clone many copies of himself to assist him in combat or other tasks. His weapon—a staff called “ruyi jingu bang” (如意金箍棒)—weights 13,500 jin (斤), about 8,000 kilograms or 17,560 lbs, and can be shrunk to the size of a needle and tucked behind his ear. Wukong acquired immortality and these mythical powers after studying under Master Subhuti, eating the “Peaches of Immortality” from the Heavenly Garden, consuming Laozi’s (老子) “Pills of Immortality”, and drinking the Jade Emperor’s heavenly wine. Furthermore, after being forge-heated in Laozi’s crucible for 49 days, Wukong’s body has become indestructible and his “golden pupils and fiery eyes” (金睛火眼) can look over long distances and see through illusions and obstacles.

Given these supernatural powers, how did a mere mortal like Xuanzang control Wukong? Despite his wit, Wukong was tricked by the Guanyin Buddha (观音) into wearing a golden headband (金箍) that could only be released when Wukong completed the pilgrimage with Xuanzang and reached Buddhahood. To control Wukong, Xuanzang needed only to recite the “tight-fillet spell” (紧箍咒) to subdue him by causing an acute headache. 

In accompanying his master on the pilgrimage, Wukong constantly confronted demons and spirits seeking to capture or harm Xuanzang. Wukong was also subjected to punishments by his master, challenges by his fellow sojourners Zhu Bajie (猪八戒) and Sha Wujing (沙悟净), and tests of worldly temptations. Overcoming these challenges was Wukong’s path toward redemption for earlier transgressions and rebelling against Heaven. It also brought enlightenment and transformed him from a rebel to a devoted spiritual being and eventually Buddhahood.

While deeply rooted in Chinese traditions, Wukong’s story—emphasizing the universal traits of youth rebellion, wit, growing pain, the struggle for self-actualization, and redemption—make him a beloved figure in many cultures and the Journey has been translated to many languages. In China, the Monkey King is often depicted in operas, films, and art. The Journey draws inspiration from Indian folklores and Wukong shares traits with the Hindu deity Hanuman. Modern Indian media often draw parallels between Hanuman and Wukong. The Monkey King is known as Son Goku (孙悟空) in Japanese and Son O-gong (손오공) in Korean and Wukong has been adopted by these two cultures as their own. In Southeast Asia cultures, such as Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam, the Journey has been adapted and localized. Moreover, the character Wukong has been made popular in global pop culture by films, animations, and video games, one of which is the ultra-popular Black Myth: Wukong that was released in 2024.